BY WILL DURANT
The Story of Philosophy
Transition
The Pleasure of Philosophy
Adventures in Genius
BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
1. Our Oriental Heritage
2. The Life of Greece
3. Caesar and Christ
4. The Age of Faith
5. The Renaissance
6. The Reformation
7. The Age of Reason Begins
8. The Age of Louis XIV
9. The Age of Voltaire
10. Rousseau and Revolution
11. The Age of Napoleon
The Lessons of History
Interpretation of Life
A Dual Autobiography
COPYRIGHT 1950 BY WILL DURANT
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
INCLUDING THE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION
IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN ANY FORM
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MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
TO ETHEL, GORDON, AND JIM
To the Reader
THIS book aims to give as full and fair an account of medieval civilization from A.D. 325 to 1300, as space and prejudice will permit. Its method is integral history—the presentation of all phases of a culture or an age in one total picture and narrative. The obligation to cover the economic, political, legal, military, moral, social, religious, educational, scientific, medical, philosophic, literary, and artistic aspects of four distinct civilizations—Byzantine, Islamic, Judaic, and West European—has made unification and brevity difficult. The meeting and conflict of the four cultures in the Crusades provides a measure of unity; and the tired reader, appalled by the length of the book, may find some consolation in learning that the original manuscript was half again longer than the present text.* Nothing has been retained except what seemed necessary to the proper understanding of the period, or to the life and color of the tale. Nevertheless certain recondite passages, indicated by reduced type, may be omitted by the general reader without mortal injury.
These two volumes constitute Part IV of a history of civilization. Part I, Our Oriental Heritage (1935), reviewed the history of Egypt and the Near East to their conquest by Alexander about 330 B.C., and of India, China, and Japan to the present century. Part II, The Life of Greece (1939), recorded the career and culture of Hellas and the Near East to the Roman Conquest of Greece in 146 B.C. Part III, Caesar and Christ (1944), surveyed the history of Rome and Christianity from their beginnings, and of the Near East from 146 B.C., to the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325. This book continues the study of the white man’s life to the death of Dante in 1321. Part V, The Renaissance and the Reformation, covering the period from 1321 to 1648, should appear in 1955; and Part VI, The Age of Reason, carrying the story to our own time, should be ready by 1960. This will bring the author so close to senility that he must forgo the privilege of applying the integral method to the two Americas.
Each of these volumes is designed as an independent unit, but readers familiar with Caesar and Christ will find it easier to pick up the threads of the present narrative. Chronology compels us to begin with those facets of the quadripartite medieval civilization which are most remote from our normal interest—the Byzantine and the Islamic. The Christian reader will be surprised by the space given to the Moslem culture, and the Moslem scholar will mourn the brevity with which the brilliant civilization of medieval Islam has here been summarized. A persistent effort has been made to be impartial, to see each faith and culture from its own point of view. But prejudice has survived, if only in the selection of material and the allotment of space. The mind, like the body, is imprisoned in its skin.
The manuscript has been written three times, and each rewriting has discovered errors. Many must still remain; the improvement of the part is sacrificed to the completion of the whole. The correction of errors will be welcomed.
Grateful acknowledgment is due to Dr. Use Lichtenstadter, of the Asia Institute of New York, for reading the pages on Islamic civilization; to Dr. Bernard Mandelbaum, of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, for reviewing the pages on medieval Jewry; to Professor Lynn Thorndike, of Columbia University, for the use of his translation of a passage from Alexander Neckham; to the Cambridge University Press for permission to quote translations from Edward G. Browne’s A Literary History of Persia; to the Public Library of Los Angeles, and specifically to its Hollywood Branch, and to the Library of Congress, for the loan of books; to Miss Rose Mary DeWitte for typing 50,000 notes; to Dr. James L. Whitehead, Dr. C. Edward Hopkin, and Mrs. Will Durant for their learned aid in classifying the material; to Misses Mary and Flora Kaufman for varied assistance; and to Mrs. Edith Digate for her high competence in typing the manuscript.
This book, like all its predecessors, should have been dedicated to my wife, who for thirty-seven years has given me a patient toleration, protection, guidance, and inspiration that not all these volumes could repay. It is at her prompting that these two volumes are dedicated to our daughter, son-in-law, and grandson.
WILL DURANT
November 22, 1949
Table of Contents
BOOK I: THE BYZANTINE ZENITH: A.D. 325–565
Chronological Table
Chapter I. JULIAN THE APOSTATE: 332–63
I. The Legacy of Constantine
II. Christians and Pagans
III. The New Caesar
IV. The Pagan Emperor
V. Journey’s End
Chapter II. THE TRIUMPH OF THE BARBARIANS: 325–476
I. The Threatened Frontier
II. The Savior Emperors
III. Italian Background
IV. The Barbarian Flood
V. The Fall of Rome
Chapter III. THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY: 364–451
I. The Organization of the Church
II. The Heretics
III. The Christian West
1. Rome
2. St. Jerome
3. Christian Soldiers
IV. The Christian East
1. The Monks of the East
2. The Eastern Bishops
V. St. Augustine
1. The Sinner
2. The Theologian
3. The Philosopher
4. The Patriarch
VI. The Church and the World
Chapter IV. EUROPE TAKES FORM: 325–529
I. Britain Becomes England
II. Ireland
III. Prelude to France
1. The Last Days of Classic Gaul
2. The Franks
3. The Merovingians
IV. Visigothic Spain
V. Ostrogothic Italy
1. Theodoric
2. Boethius
Chapter V. JUSTINIAN: 527–65
I. The Emperor
II. Theodora
III. Belisarius
IV. The Code of Justinian
V. The Imperial Theologian
Chapter VI. BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION: 337–565
I. Work and Wealth
II. Science and Philosophy
III. Literature
IV. Byzantine Art
1. The Passage from Paganism
2. The Byzantine Artist
3. St. Sophia
4. Fro
m Constantinople to Ravenna
5. The Byzantine Arts
Chapter VII. THE PERSIANS: 224–641
I. Sasanian Society
II. Sasanian Royalty
III. Sasanian Art
IV. The Arab Conquest
BOOK II: ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: A.D. 569–1258
Chronological Table
Chapter VIII. MOHAMMED: 569–632
I. Arabia
II. Mohammed in Mecca
III. Mohammed in Medina
IV. Mohammed Victorious
Chapter IX. THE KORAN
I. Form
II. Creed
III. Ethics
IV. Religion and the State
V. Sources of the Koran
Chapter X. THE SWORD OF ISLAM: 632–1058
I. The Successors
II. The Umayyad Caliphate
III. The Abbasid Caliphate
1. Harun al-Rashid
2. Decline of the Abbasids
IV. Armenia
Chapter XI. THE ISLAMIC SCENE: 632–1058
I. The Economy
II. The Faith
III. The People
IV. The Government
V. The Cities
Chapter XII. THOUGHT AND ART IN EASTERN ISLAM: 632–1058
I. Scholarship
II. Science
III. Medicine
IV. Philosophy
V. Mysticism and Heresy
VI. Literature
VII. Art
VIII. Music
Chapter XIII. WESTERN ISLAM: 641–1086
I. The Conquest of Africa
II. Islamic Civilization in Africa
III. Islam in the Mediterranean
IV. Spanish Islam
1. Caliphs and Emirs
2. Civilization in Moorish Spain
Chapter XIV. THE GRANDEUR AND DECLINE OF ISLAM: 1058–1258
I. The Islamic East
II. The Islamic West
III. Glimpses of Islamic Art
IV. The Age of Omar Khayyam
V. The Age of Sa’di
VI. Moslem Science
VII. Al-Ghazali
VIII. Averroës
IX. The Coming of the Mongols
X. Islam and Christendom
BOOK III: JUDAIC CIVILIZATION: A.D. 135–1300
Chronological Table
Chapter XV. THE TALMUD: 135–500
I. The Exiles
II. The Makers of the Talmud
III. The Law
1. Theology
2. Ritual
3. Ethics of the Talmud
IV. Life and the Law
Chapter XVI. THE MEDIEVAL JEWS: 500–1300
I. The Oriental Communities
II. The European Communities
III. Jewish Life
1. Government
2. Economy
3. Morals
4. Religion
IV. Anti-Semitism
Chapter XVII. THE MIND AND HEART OF THE JEW: 500–1300
I. Letters
II. The Adventures of the Talmud
III. Science Among the Jews
IV. The Rise of Jewish Philosophy
V. Maimonides
VI. The Maimonidean War
VII. The Cabala
VIII. Release
BOOK IV: THE DARK AGES: A.D. 566–1095
Chronological Table
Chapter XVIII. THE BYZANTINE WORLD: 566–1095
I. Heraclius
II. The Iconoclasts
III. Imperial Kaleidoscope
IV. Byzantine Life
V. The Byzantine Renaissance
VI. The Balkans
VII. The Birth of Russia
Chapter XIX. THE DECLINE OF THE WEST: 566–1066
I. Italy
1. The Lombards
2. The Normans in Italy
3. Venice
4. Italian Civilization
II. Christian Spain
III. France
1. The Coming of the Carolingians
2. Charlemagne
3. The Carolingian Decline
4. Letters and Arts
5. The Rise of the Dukes
Chapter XX. THE RISE OF THE NORTH: 566–1066
I. England
1. Alfred and the Danes
2. Anglo-Saxon Civilization
3. Between Conquests
II. Wales
III. Irish Civilization
IV. Scotland
V. The Northmen
1. The Kings’ Saga
2. Viking Civilization
VI. Germany
1. The Organization of Power
2. German Civilization
Chapter XXI. CHRISTIANITY IN CONFLICT: 529–1085
I. St. Benedict
II. Gregory the Great
III. Papal Politics
IV. The Greek Church
V. The Christian Conquest of Europe
VI. The Nadir of the Papacy
VII. The Reform of the Church
VIII. The Great Eastern Schism
IX. Gregory VII Hildebrand
Chapter XXII. FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY: 600–1200
I. Feudal Origins
II. Feudal Organization
1. The Slave
2. The Serf
3. The Village Community
4. The Lord
5. The Feudal Church
6. The King
III. Feudal Law
IV. Feudal War
V. Chivalry
BOOK V: THE CLIMAX OF CHRISTIANITY: A.D. 1095–1300
Chronological Table
Chapter XXIII. THE CRUSADES: 1095–1291
I. Causes
II. The First Crusade
III. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
IV. The Second Crusade
V. Saladin
VI. The Third Crusade
VII. The Fourth Crusade
VIII. The Collapse of the Crusades
IX. The Results of the Crusades
Chapter XXIV. THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTION: 1066–1300
I. The Revival of Commerce
II. The Progress of Industry
III. Money
IV. Interest
V. The Guilds
VI. The Communes
VII. The Agricultural Revolution
VIII. The Class War
Chapter XXV. THE RECOVERY OF EUROPE: 1095–1300
I. Byzantium
II. The Armenians
III. Russia and the Mongols
IV. The Balkan Flux
V. The Border States
VI. Germany
VII. Scandinavia
VIII. England
1. William the Conqueror
2. Thomas à Becket
3. Magna Carta
4. The Growth of the Law
5. The English Scene
IX. Ireland—Scotland—Wales
X. The Rhinelands
XI. France
1. Philip Augustus
2. St. Louis
3. Philip the Fair
XII. Spain
XIII. Portugal
Chapter XXVI. PRE-RENAISSANCE ITALY: 1057–1308
I. Norman Sicily
II. The Papal States
III. Venice Triumphant
IV. From Mantua to Genoa
V. Frederick II
1. The Excommunicate Crusader
2. The Wonder of the World
3. Empire vs. Papacy
VI. The Dismemberment of Italy
VII. The Rise of Florence
Chapter XXVII. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH: 1095–1294
I. The Faith of the People
II. The Sacraments
III. Prayer
IV. Ritual
V. Canon Law
VI. The Clergy
VII. The Papacy Supreme
VIII. The Finances of the Church
Chapter XXVIII. THE EARLY INQUISITION: 1000–1300
I. The Albigensian Heresy
II. The Background of the
Inquisition
III. The Inquisitors
IV. Results
Chapter XXIX. MONKS AND FRIARS: 1095–1300
I. The Monastic Life
II. St. Bernard
III. St. Francis
IV. St. Dominic
V. The Nuns
VI. The Mystics
VII. The Tragic Pope
VII. Retrospect
Chapter XXX. THE MORALS AND MANNERS OF CHRISTENDOM: 700–1300
I. The Christian Ethic
II. Premarital Morality
III. Marriage
IV. Woman
V. Public Morality
VI. Medieval Dress
VII. In the Home
VIII. Society and Sport
IX. Morality and Religion
Chapter XXXI. THE RESURRECTION OF THE ARTS: 1095–1300
I. The Esthetic Awakening
II. The Adornment of Life
III. Painting
1. Mosaic
2. Miniatures
3. Murals
4. Stained Glass
IV. Sculpture
Chapter XXXII. THE GOTHIC FLOWERING: 1095–1300
I. The Cathedral
II. Continental Romanesque
III. The Norman Style in England
IV. The Evolution of Gothic
V. French Gothic
VI. English Gothic
VII. German Gothic
VIII. Italian Gothic
IX. Spanish Gothic
X. Considerations
Chapter XXXIII. MEDIEVAL MUSIC: 326–1300
I. The Music of the Church
II. The Music of the People
Chapter XXXIV. THE TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE: 1000–1300
I. The Rise of the Vernaculars
II. The World of Books
III. The Translators
IV. The Schools
V. Universities of the South
VI. Universities of France
VII. Universities of England
VIII. Student Life
Chapter XXXV. ABÉLARD: 1079–1142
I. Divine Philosophy
II. Héloïse
III. The Rationalist
IV. The Letters of Heloise
V. The Condemned
Chapter XXXVI. THE ADVENTURE OF REASON: 1120–1308
I. The School of Chartres
II. Aristotle in Paris
III. The Freethinkers
IV. The Development of Scholasticism
V. Thomas Aquinas
VI. The Thomist Philosophy
1. Logic
2. Metaphysics
3. Theology
4. Psychology
5. Ethics
6. Politics
7. Religion
8. The Reception of Thomism
VII. The Successors
Chapter XXXVII. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE: 1095–1300
I. The Magical Environment
II. The Mathematical Revolution